Introduction

The term “apocalypticism” comes from the Greek word apokalypsis, meaning “revelation” or “unveiling.” It is used to refer to a “movement,” “mindset,” or “pattern of religion” that characterized a considerable number of Jews during the last two centuries B.C.E. and first two centuries C.E. Broadly, apocalypticism is a religious lens derived from supernatural revelation through dreams, visions, or otherworldly journeys. These revelations contain messages about the heavenly realm and/or climax of human history. 

More specifically, scholars differentiate between three different but interrelated expressions of apocalypticism. First, the term apocalypticism generally refers to a religious worldview built upon these revelations. Second, “apocalyptic eschatology” is a specific element of the apocalyptic worldview that focuses on “last things” such as the end of the world, the salvation of Israel, the renewal of the cosmos, and the fate of the dead. Finally, an apocalyptic worldview and apocalyptic eschatology find expression within the “apocalypse,” a genre of literature written from the above two perspectives. 

Apocalypticism as a worldview and genre of literature developed within Judaism during the Second Temple period in response to the social and political situations in which Jews found themselves. This worldview was not only prominent amongst Jews but also among early Christians and Jesus himself. It has been said that “apocalyptic is the mother of Christianity.” Specifically, regarding the focus of this paper, apocalypticism is vital to understanding the ministry of Jesus, his Jewish context, and his expectations and language about the future. This paper will not attempt to delve into the historicity of the presentation of Jesus’ ministry in the Gospels but will draw attention to the apocalyptic nature of Jesus’ ministry as presented by the Gospel writers. 

Apocalypticism in Second Temple Judaism

Characteristics of Second Temple Jewish Apocalyptic Literature

As mentioned above, while a distinction must be made between apocalypticism, apocalyptic eschatology, and an apocalypse, the best way to begin uncovering the apocalyptic worldview of Second Temple Jews is to try and understand the literature written from the perspective of this worldview. During the Second Temple period, a variety of Jewish literature was written that was either an apocalypse or contained apocalyptic language and beliefs. Examples include 1 and 2 Enoch, Daniel, Jubilees, the Testament of Moses, 4 Ezra, the Apocalypse of Abraham, and the Testament of Abraham. Helyer identifies nine characteristics shared by this group of literature, providing a glimpse into the apocalyptic worldview of Second Temple Jews. 

1. All apocalyptic literature, except for Revelation, is pseudonymous. The ascribed individual is usually an ancient worthy or prophet, such as Adam, Enoch, Abraham, or Moses. 

2. The primary mode of revelation is visionary; thus, most apocalyptic literature consists of descriptions of visions attributed to the pseudonym (e.g., Dan 2; 7; 9; 11-12; 1 Enoch 1-36; 4 Ezra 3-14; 2 Baruch 1-3; 53-74). These visions are not necessarily fictitious creations by the author but may have been actual visionary experiences produced by the hard times in which this literature was created. 

3. The visions focus on the supernatural realm (e.g., Dan 7-10; 1 Enoch 1-5; 7-8; 17-36; 56; 90-100; Apoc. Ab. 10-18; 4 Ezra 3-14; 2 Baruch 6-7) and the end times (e.g., Dan 7-9; 11-12; 1 Enoch 85-90; 91:11-17; 93; 4 Ezra 7; 13; 2 Baruch 26-30). 

4. The visionary typically journeys into the heavens to receive secret knowledge from angels. 

5. Earthly realities are counterparts of heavenly realities. For example, the earthly temple has a heavenly counterpart, and earthly rulers are influenced by the principalities and powers. 

6. The writers believed that they were living in the end times or that the end times were imminent. However, before the end comes, the righteous will face great tribulation. When the end comes, it will be a return to the pristine conditions which characterized the Garden of Eden. 

7. Apocalyptic literature does not always agree about the agent of God’s deliverance in the end times. Sometimes it is God, other times it is an angel, and sometimes it is a messianic figure such as a Davidic king or the “son of man.” Whoever is believed to be the agent of God’s deliverance, the literature always looks forward to God’s intervention in world affairs to punish the wicked and reward the righteous. 

8. The characteristics of the end are also not always agreed upon within apocalyptic literature. Some books look forward to a restoration of the Davidic kingdom, while others await a complete transformation of the cosmos into something like the “new heavens and new earth” of Isaiah (Isaiah 65:17; 66:22). 

9. Apocalypticism was not the viewpoint of one or a few groups during the Second Temple period but seemed to be a prevalent worldview shared by most Second Temple Jews.

The Historical Setting of Jewish Apocalypticism

One of the hallmarks of apocalypticism is the belief that people are living in the end times and that God will soon act in the world to punish the wicked and reward the righteous. Such a focus carried great significance for Jews living during the times leading up to the Maccabean revolt in 167 B.C.E. This was a dark time in Jewish history, thus creating within the Jewish people a need for hope that God was about to act to rid them of their evil oppressors. Therefore, this period gave rise to the prevalent apocalypticism that would carry on within Judaism through the time of Jesus and into the early church. 

The period of darkness began when the Babylonians conquered the Southern Kingdom of Judah. However, the Jewish people faced their worst plight beginning with the fall of Palestine to the Seleucids. The primary opponent to Seleucid nationalistic expansion were the Romans. Following Antiochus III’s defeat and assassination at the hands of the Romans, the Seleucids resorted to looting sanctuaries to pull together enough money to pay Rome. One of the sanctuaries looted was the temple in Jerusalem, probably referred to in Daniel 11:20.

Things got worse for the Jewish people when Antiochus IV rose to power. In order to defeat Rome, Antiochus IV believed he needed to unify his kingdom. The primary people group he took issue with was the Jews, because many continued in their ancestral traditions and resisted the Hellenistic way of life. A small, influential number of Jews who advocated Hellenism joined Antiochus IV in his efforts. Jason, a brother of the high priest, bribed Antiochus IV, who appointed him high priest to spread Hellenistic culture. Jason established in Jerusalem Greek schools, a gymnasion, ephēbeion, and official roll of citizenry. Athletic games were sponsored, which resulted in some Jews reversing their circumcision due to embarrassment, since the games were played in the nude. Eventually, Menelaus bribed Antiochus IV, even more generously, to receive the high priesthood.

In 170-169 B.C.E. Antiochus IV invaded Egypt, bringing upon himself the wrath of Rome, resulting in a significant and embarrassing defeat. Upon his return from battle, Antiochus IV found Jerusalem in chaos, with the partisans of Jason, Menelaus, and a third group fighting for control. In response, Antiochus IV raided the city, killing many Jews. Peace did not last, resulting in Antiochus IV dispatching Apollonius to attack Jerusalem on the Sabbath, when Jews would not fight, massacring many. A military fortress, called the Akra, was then established in Jerusalem near the temple.

The culmination occurred when Antiochus IV forbade the observance of Torah and had all copies burned; if a mother had her son circumcised, the son would be killed and hung around the mother’s neck, and he forced Jews to disobey their food laws by eating pork. Then, the Jerusalem temple was turned into a pagan cult center with an altar to Zeus. In December 167 B.C.E., a sow was offered on this altar in front of the Jerusalem temple. 

These events gave rise, not only to the time of the Hasmoneans, but also to the hope found in the extensive Jewish apocalyptic literature. As the Jewish people found themselves under foreign rule, unable to practice their faith, their desire for God to act to punish their oppressors and set his covenant people free found articulation in apocalyptic literature. Additionally, during the time of the Hasmoneans, there was a renewed hope among many Jews that a new Davidic kingdom, an important concept in many apocalypses, would be established. 

by: Spencer Shaw

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Works Cited:

1. B. J. Pitre, “Apocalypticism and Apocalyptic Teaching,” in Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, ed. Joel B. Green, Jeannine K. Brown, and Nicholas Perrin (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2013); Christopher Rowland, “Apocalypticism,” in The Eerdmans Dictionary of Early Judaism, ed. John J. Collins and Daniel C. Harlow (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing, 2010), 345.

2. Larry R. Helyer, Exploring Jewish Literature of the Second Temple Period (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2002), 112.

3. Rowland, “Apocalypticism,” 345.

4. Helyer, Exploring Jewish Literature, 112.

5. Rowland, “Apocalypticism,” 345.

6. Pitre, “Apocalypticism”; Rowland, “Apocalypticism,” 345.

7. Helyer, Exploring Jewish Literature, 112.

8. Pitre, “Apocalypticism.”

9. Rowland, “Apocalypticism,” 346.

10. Helyer, Exploring Jewish Literature, 117-9.

11. Helyer, Exploring Jewish Literature, 113-4.

12. Helyer, Exploring Jewish Literature, 115.

13. Helyer, Exploring Jewish Literature, 115-16.